Le Corbusier’s mass-produced homes as “machines for living”—a precursor to today’s smart home and city designs shaped by technology.
In Towards A New Architecture, Le Corbusier strongly advocates for a new mindset regarding housing—one that embraces the mass production of homes, which he famously calls “machines for living.” This vision was shaped by the uncertainties of the Industrial Revolution when rapid technological advances were transforming construction methods and architecture. Le Corbusier argues that these changes call for a shift away from traditional, decorative/ornate architecture and toward a functional, efficient approach that reflects the realities of modern life.
He contends that homes, like machines, should prioritize functionality and efficiency, serving the needs of their occupants rather than adhering to outdated aesthetic values. For Le Corbusier, the beauty of modern architecture lies in its utility, simplicity, and ability to be mass-produced—values he believes are essential to meeting the growing demands of urbanization and industrial progress.
Shortly after publishing Towards A New Architecture, he published his manifesto, Five Points of Architecture, which provided architects with the blueprints for creating and designing Modernist Architecture. The five points introduced were Les Toits Jardins, Le Plan Libre, La Fenetre en Longueur, and la Facade libre. In addition to the claims, the points demonstrated examples and references to achieving Modernism. Still, it was additionally a guide that demonstrated how architects could/should deal with technological advancements in the built environment.
The End of the Third Industrial Revolution
Since then, systems revolving around the modern home have continued progressing, given the immediate technological advancements and moving from mass-production houses to modified smart homes. Below are some of the more innovative milestones in smart home devices and technologies that have been introduced within the last couple of decades:
1980s – Home Automation Systems (X10): The X10 protocol is one of the earliest home automation systems, using power lines to send signals to connected devices, laying the foundation for future smart homes.
X10 was ahead of time regarding concepts of home automation and interconnectivity. Unfortunately, communication was unreliable due to other technological interferences. However, they did contribute to the thinking process and layouts of these new physical, electronic systems existing within the home.
1990s – Wired Home Security Systems: Companies like the American District Telegraph (ADT) introduced comprehensive security systems that integrated alarms, sensors, and control panels, offering the first wave of automated home security.
ADT was one of the first digital security infrastructures applied to the home. Some might argue that it provided a different sense of comfort and safety for the home.
1990s – Early Home Networking: The adoption of Ethernet cables and the introduction of Wi-Fi (802.11) created the first infrastructure for wireless device communication in homes.
The introduction of the World Wide Web at home through phone cables and later ethernet cables drastically (and continues) changed the time spent at home. It was a technological advancement that allowed people to communicate and entertain themselves within a new digital environment. With the introduction of Wi-Fi and other new technologies, our behavior between our living space at home and our technologies has changed significantly. We can now roam the web from space to space with little to no restrictions.
2000s – Smart Thermostats: The Nest Thermostat (released in 2011) allowed users to remotely control and automate heating and cooling systems, learning from user behavior to optimize energy use.
Smart thermostats, which run on the Wi-Fi network, help people achieve some energy efficiency at home. Through this technology, we’ve allowed the thermostat to learn our patterns and our goals for energy efficiency, and we have worked with gas companies to communicate specific metrics with overall usage.
2000s – Smart TVs: Early Smart TVs integrated internet connectivity, allowing users to stream content via apps like Netflix, Hulu, YouTube, etc.
Smart TVs became an additional component of home Wi-Fi, allowing us to seek other entertainment venues (e.g., connecting our phones to watch YouTube videos or subscribing to streaming services such as Netflix or Hulu).
2010s – Voice Assistants: Devices like Amazon Echo (2014) and Google Home (2016) introduced voice control for smart devices, revolutionizing home automation.
Voice assistants have taken control of our automated technology devices by allowing us to access or utilize them via voice command. Since voice assistants typically come with an integrated speaker, they’ve also been considered a technology for playing music, which plays a role in where these systems are placed and how their acoustics sound within those areas.
2010s – Smart Lighting: Systems like Philips Hue introduced color-changing and dimmable lights that could be controlled via apps or voice assistants.
Smart lighting systems allow individuals to have their personal lighting preferences at home. They also operate on Wi-Fi and voice assistants, influencing how lighting is grouped or dispersed within the house and contributing to its layout design.
2010s – Smart Appliances: Refrigerators, washing machines, ovens, and more became smart, with brands like Samsung offering internet-connected devices to control settings remotely.
Smart appliances didn’t necessarily influence the spaces within our homes, but more on how we operate in specific spaces and the amount of time spent within them. Whether setting your coffee maker on a timer or having the refrigerator make a note of what types of groceries are needed for the next supermarket trip, in theory, these smart appliances make our everyday lives easier.
2020s – Smart Doorbells and Cameras: Systems like Ring provided real-time video feeds, motion detection, and two-way communication for enhanced security.
Smart doorbells and cameras took home security to a new level; these systems now provide video (in real-time), allowing individuals to take ownership of securing and monitoring their homes via an application on their phones. If we zoom back a little, these systems collectively created a CCTV system for the community or neighborhood.
As smart technologies and devices continue to make their way into our homes, the number of smart home brands on the market has steadily increased. For some, frequently upgrading or replacing smart devices each year may be appealing, similar to upgrading their smartphone. However, this constant evolution can be daunting for less tech-savvy people, potentially turning what should be a convenience into an overwhelming and costly setup.
Challenges such as ensuring devices are correctly connected to the network, ensuring all devices are compatible (especially when they operate under different smartphone applications), or simply dealing with systems so complex that they hinder ease of use can make adopting smart technologies a frustrating experience. Despite these hurdles, technological advancements will continue to accelerate, and ideally, so will our collective ability to navigate these new systems with greater ease and confidence.
Smart technologies have infiltrated our homes, the workplace, and many sectors. They are all part of the Third Industrial Revolution (TIR). As the Strategic Foresight Initiative Atlantic Council explained in their report Envisioning 2030, “ The first industrial revolution was the application of steam power to production processes in the eighteenth century; the second was the invention of the modern assembly line at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Like its predecessors, TIR is changing the way things are made, where and when they are produced, and how they are distributed. It is reducing the energy and raw materials consumed and the carbon footprint of manufacturing. It is changing social relations, creating but also destroying jobs, and altering the relationship of people to production.” The rise of TIR has been made possible by advancements over decades in information and communication technology (ICT), artificial intelligence, and the increasing use of big data and algorithms. It has also been driven by the development of the Internet of Things (IoT) and breakthroughs in new materials.
Towards Another New Architecture (Fourth Industrial Revolution)
IoT consists of various digital technologies, like sensors, communication devices, and software, that connect physical systems to the digital world. This connection enables real-time data collection and monitoring of those systems. Using this data, decisions and actions can be coordinated efficiently, making the physical systems more intelligent and responsive.
“Recent technological developments in manufacturing have spurred a global transformation that is now being called the Fourth Industrial Revolution. The fourth stage in any industry has become synonymous with state-of-the-art status, digitization, and smart automation. Although there is a lack of consensus about the best way to harness these developments, a number of countries and most industries have produced visions and roadmaps to strengthen their competitive positions in the race,” according to Shuo-Yan Chou in her article The Fourth Industrial Revolution: Digital Fusion with Internet of Things. Compared to the third revolution, which emphasizes the relationship between digital and physical, the fourth revolution, according to Chou, is much more a digital transformation than a physical one.
The Fourth Industrial Revolution (FIR) has been significantly driven by the rise of the IoT, which has enhanced connectivity over the past few decades. This technology is essential for fostering the growth and success of smart cities. IoT offers substantial environmental benefits, helping to create more efficient and sustainable cities. It plays a crucial role in addressing the challenges posed by urbanization, particularly in areas such as architecture, agriculture, public safety, surveillance, and sanitation. By streamlining these sectors, IoT helps mitigate the pressures of growing populations while advancing sustainability.
The smart city concept is nearly as old as some of the previously discussed smart home technologies. While there’s no precise moment when the term was first coined, it is generally believed to have originated in the early 1990s, with its popularity growing in the 2000s. Despite the ambiguity surrounding its origins, the meaning of a “smart city” has evolved and has been shaped by various factors such as design methodologies, technological innovations, environmental goals, socioeconomic considerations, etc. As big tech companies, urban planners, and governments continue to explore and redefine the role of smart cities, the concept remains fluid, reflecting ongoing changes in technology and urban development strategies.
Smart-City Proposals
According to a report done by Nesta in 2015, “Cities and national governments around the world are investing in the potential of smart cities at an ever increasing rate: in China and India lone almost 300 smart city pilots are currently planned, and Arup predicts a global market for smart city technologies and services worth $408 billion by 2020.”
In 2017, Sidewalk Labs, a subsidiary of Alpahbet Inc., announced an ambitious plan to build a smart city from the ground up in Toronto. The vision was to create a 12-acre neighborhood using advanced technologies like sensors, autonomous vehicles, modular buildings, and underground waste disposal robots. These technologies aimed to collect data to optimize energy efficiency and urban systems, leading to an “urban-tech revolution.”
The project featured 12 timber towers with 2,500 residential units, 1,000 below-market rentals, and integrated offices, shops, and housing. The master plan outlined two key areas, Quayside and the 150-acre River District, known as the IDEA District, to test various projects and concepts proposed for Toronto. However, the project quickly became mired in controversy over data privacy, surveillance concerns, and Sidewalk’s push for control over data collection. The project faced political challenges and skepticism from the local community, eventually leading to its cancellation in 2020.
Another more recent ambitious proposal is THE LINE by NEOM, a futuristic urban development that aims to revolutionize city living by eliminating roads, cars, and emissions. It will be powered entirely by 100% renewable energy, with 95% of the surrounding land preserved for nature. The city is designed to prioritize human well-being over infrastructure, offering a compact footprint of just 34 square kilometers while accommodating 9 million people.
Standing 500 meters above sea level, this building would be the 12th tallest skyscraper globally and, by far, the longest. Residents will have access to all daily necessities within a five-minute walk, and high-speed rail will enable end-to-end transit in just 20 minutes. The design focuses on sustainability and environmental health, with zero-carbon operations, optimized air quality, and microclimatic spaces that balance sunlight, shade, and ventilation. Despite these grand ambitions, the first phase of the project, expected by 2030, will span only 1.5 miles due to budget constraints. Like Sidewalks Lab, NEOM has also received criticism and concerns.
The criticism, in this case, revolved around human rights violations, specifically for the treatment of the indigenous Howeitat tribe (which consists of roughly 20,000 individuals), which has led to evictions of the Indigenous tribe, displacing them and violating their human rights.
Due to technological advancements, Le Corbusier’s ideas on functional, mass-produced homes have evolved compared to today’s smart technologies and systems (home or city), which revolve around hardware (materials) and software. As urban spaces continue to face challenges, smart innovations like IoT and renewable energy are shaping more efficient, sustainable environments, exemplified by the many ambitious smart city projects across the globe.
Despite obstacles, the pursuit of smarter and intelligent urban solutions remains a crucial step toward addressing the needs of modern living. However, some cities worldwide have already begun to rethink and reimagine smart cities, which calls for a shift from smart to smarter or intelligent new architecture (hard and soft).
